Referat Indians in America

_{Indians in America}

The Ancient Indians

Bering - Mankind came from Asia to America in the Pleistocene age ( = Ice Age) via the Bering street land bridge during the Wisconsin (corresponding to the Würm, 90 000 or 75 0 0 to 0 0 B.C.). These Paleo Siberians who went there were the first Indians. The first artefacts of this culture date back to

50 000 to 10 000 B C. About 0 0 to 1 000 B C , long after the submersion of the Bering land bridge

Eskimos and Aleuts came with wooden dugouts and skin boats to America.

Lithic-Indian - Lithic Indians first did not have the knowledge of stone points for their spears. This age was called the Pre-Projectile-Point   stage (about 5 , 00 B.C. to about 2 ,0 0 B C ). The hunters probably used fire to harden the tips of their spears, but their did not remain any spears. After 5, 00

B.C. new techniques appeared among Lithic Indians, and workable stone (flint, chert and obsidian) was used to make cutting tools and the spear points which were very important for hunting.

Archaic-Indians (Foraging Indians) - This time lasted from about 6 000 B C. to 1 000 B.C. and is characterized by Indians hunting and trapping small game, fishing and gathering of edible plants. The Archaic-Indian tribes became more localized than the Lithic Indian ones and archaeologists even found some permanent Archaic sites. More materials were used during this time and food was stored in baskets and skin containers. Archaic Indians were the first North Americans to craft wooden boats and domesticate the dog. In this time they also started to make ornaments.

In general it is difficult to find a system classifications for these periods because each of the Indian groups

developed in their own way with different habits, progress and success. This makes the study of prehistoric

Indians confusing.

Ancient civilizations

Southwest - In this part of America which today contains southern Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, a corner of Texas and northern Mexico. Because of the limited food sources agriculture was discovered here as an alternative. The cultures which lived here especially developed village life, tools, arts and pottery. The three most important cultures were: Mogollon ( Mountain People ), Hohokam ('Vanished Ones') and Anasazi Ancient Ones'). All these cultures existed between 5 0 A D. to 1, 00

A.D.

The Mound Builders - In eastern and midwestern America was enough food so that advanced cultures with bigger populations could arise without much agriculture. The two main cultures were the Adena and the Hopewell. They were both situated in Ohio Valley. The Adena existed from 1 000 B C. to 00

A.D., the Hopewell from about 300 B C. to 700 A.D. Both cultures constructed Mounds made out of earth. These mounds reached a height up to 30 or 40 feet.

The Temple Mound Builders - This culture was very good in farming. They lived in the Southeast near rivers and grew corn, squash, pumpkins and tobacco. They had an eccelent trade net between

themselves and other Indians. They had a highly developed social structure and caste system. Because they  were obsessed with death they built mounds like the Adena and Hopewells and also temple mounds.

Indian Lifeways

Art and technology

Woodwork - Indians were masters of woodwork and they used a variety of tools to shape the wood. They made axes, knives, scrapers, drills and hammers out of stone, shell, copper, bone, horn and teeth. They made houses, boats, sleds, snowshoes, bows and arrows, spears, clubs, shields and much more.

Stonework - Before the iron tools from Europe arrived, stone was the primary material used to form tools for cutting, piercing, scraping and hammering. Soft stones like catlinite (pipestone)

and steatite (soapstone) were used to shape bowls, containers and religious objects. Gemstones were used to make jewelry.

Skinwork - The Indians used the skin of animals for several purposes. The uncured skin was used to make shields, boxes, drums and rattles. Indians also had various techniques to cure leather. Leather and fur served to make clothing, sheats and blankets.

Textiles - Indians not only used skin for clothing but plant fibres and wool from buffalo, too.

They did not have looms, except Indians in the Southwest. Yarn was spun on a spindle or by hand.

Basketry - This art developed together with weaving and Indians made various forms of baskets for various purposes.

Pottery - This was mainly used by local tribes in North America because the vessels were to fragile for the nomadic lifestyle.

Metalwork - Although the Native North Americans did not enter the Iron Age, metals were used all over the continent.

There are much more interesting discoveries like shellwork, featherwork, painting, dramatic arts and games and toys but it would take too much time to explain them all.

Shelter - Depending on which tribe you look at, you can find different shelters. They were all specialized for the lifestyle of a specific tribe. There were tepees, wigwams, igloos, pueblos and lean- tos.

Clothing - The style of clothin depended on the climate the Indians had to face and on which materials were available for them. For their clothing Indians used fur, cotton and various plant materials. Common articles were shirts, leggings for men and skirts and blouses for women, plus robes and blankets for cold weather. Some Indians went barefoot others wore leather moccasins or woven plant fibre sandals.

Religion - This part of Indian life was very important and had influence on their whole lifestyle. Indians saw themselves as an extension of animate and inanimate nature. Religion and ritual were important for everyday activity like the quest for food, technology, warfare and art. Prayer was used in combination with hunting, for example. Indian religion generally involved that the universe is suffused with preternatural forces and powerful spirits. Shamanism was a common form of religious practice in which the individual tried to control these spirits through the use of magic.

Language - In former  times there existed many Indian languages - perhaps as many as 2, 00! This caused problems in intertribal communication, but made it also possible for scientists to trace the development of Indian culture. Many of these languages have survived and are spoken by contemporary Indians, over 00 in the United States alone!

Indians and explorers

There are different speculations if there came other people to America before Columbus. The only case that can be proved, is the presence of Vikings in the New World. Archeologists found remains at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. And expeditions to the New World are also mentioned in Norse documents.

The white exploration of North America lasted for four centuries, from the end of the 1 ^th into the 20^th

Five European nations sent out expeditions: Spain, France, England, the Netherland and Russia. Even Sweden held a territory in the Delaware Bay. But none of the first expeditions was carried out by men of those nations: Columbus who sailed for Spain in 14 2 was an Italian as was Cabot who sailed for England in 14 7. Verranzo for France in 1524 was also Italian. Hudson who sailed for the Netherlands, in his exploration of 16 9 was English. And Bering for Russia in 17 1 was Danish.

Indian wars

After the Whites from Europe arrived a difficult time started for the Indians. Waves over waves of settlers from the overpopulated Europe came to the New World. Because the Whites did not accept traditions and habbits of the Indians they started wars. These wars should last for four hundred years. In the end the

Indians lost the Four-Hundred-Year-War. But they only lost because not all Indian tribes did fight at one front.